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1. Origins of Athenian Democracy

Origin and Structure of Athenian Democracy 1 2 3

Ancient Greece in 18 minutes 2

  • Parthenon: The temple of Athena, the goddess of wisdom, was built in the 5th century BCE.
  • Athena was never the capital of Greece; Greece itself was not a country but a collection of city-states.
  • 1700 BCE: The Crete civilization was the first to have a written language.
  • 1600 BCE: The great volcanic eruption of Santorini.
  • 1600 - 1400 BCE: Greek invasion of Crete.
  • 1400 - 1100 BCE: Mycenaean civilization.
  • 1100 - 800 BCE: The Dark Ages.
  • 800 - 500 BCE: The Archaic period. Ancient Greece started to be recognized as a civilization.
  • 750 - 500 BCE: The rise of Athens and Sparta.
  • 560 - 510 BCE: The rule of the tyrant Peisistratos.
  • 499 - 449 BCE: The Greek-Persian Wars.
  • 479 - 431 BCE: The Golden Age of Athens.
  • 431 - 404 BCE: The Peloponnesian War. Sparta defeated Athens.
  • 336 - 323 BCE: The rule of Alexander the Great.
  • 146 BCE: The Roman conquest of Greece.
  • 30 BCE: The Roman Empire was established by conquering Egypt.
  • 330 CE: Byzantium was established by Constantine the Great.

The Road to Athenian Democracy 3

  • 9th century BCE:
    • Athens was founded as a monarchy ruled by powerful kings.
    • The rule of the one.
  • 7th century BCE:
    • The wealthy nobles took over the power and established the rule of the few.
    • The aristocracy was established.
    • Laws were created by and for the elite.
    • Average citizens had no say in the government.
  • Draco the Lawgiver created the first written laws.
    • Draconian laws were harsh and severe.
  • Solon the reformer:
    • He created a fairer system of laws.
    • The new laws distributed power based on property ownership.
  • Peisistratus the tyrant:
    • He seized power and ruled as a dictator.
    • He declared himself a tyrant of Athens.
    • He was a popular ruler who improved the economy and the city.
  • Cleisthenes the father of Athenian democracy:
    • He created the first democratic constitution.
    • He created the first democratic government in the world.
    • He gave power to the people.

Introduction to the Athenian Democracy of the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BCE 1

  • The Athenian constitution, like the unwritten constitution of modern England, was a collection of customs, laws, institutions, and understandings, which were never reduced to a single document.

The classical period of Athenian history (490-322 BCE)

  • Starts in 490 BCE with the first Persian invasion of Greece.
  • Ends in 322 BCE with the death of Alexander the Great.
  • This was the era of the greatest Athenian achievements in art, literature, and philosophy.
  • In Philosophy:
    • Socrates (469-399 BCE).
    • Plato (427-348 BCE).
    • Aristotle (384-322 BCE).
  • In Literature:
    • Aeschylus (525-456 BCE).
    • Sophocles (496-406 BCE).
    • Euripides (480-406 BCE).
    • Aristophanes (448-380 BCE).
  • In History:
    • Herodotus (484-425 BCE). wrote the first history of the Persian Wars.
    • Thucydides (460-395 BCE). wrote the history of the Peloponnesian War.
  • Population of adult males (excluding women, slaves, children, and foreigners):
    • 60K in the 5th century BCE.
    • 30K in the 4th century BCE + 160K women/children + 25K resident aliens + 200K slaves => 415K total population.
    • Notice that adult males decreased significantly due to the Peloponnesian War and the plague.
  • The basic political unit was the polis (city-state):
    • The polis have both the characteristics of a city and a country.
    • The polis had the size of a city but the independence of a country.
    • There were about 700 poleis in the Greek world at its largest extent.
  • In 479 BCE:
    • the Athenians defeated the Persians on the plain of Marathon and in the waters around the island of Salamis.
    • The Athenian empire was formed after that as a coalition to protect against the Persians.
    • Member states paid annual tributes to Athens, to be used for the common defense.
  • The Peloponnesian War:
    • The war between Athens and Sparta lasted from 431 to 404 BCE.
    • The Spartans won the war and the Athenian empire was dissolved.
    • The Spartans appointed a pro-Spartan council of 30 oligarchs to rule Athens referred to as the Thirty Tyrants.
    • The Athenian democracy was restored in the beginning of the 4th century BCE.
  • The Macedonian Conquest:
    • In 350s BCE, the Macedonian king Philip II conquered the Greek world.
    • In 338 BCE, King Philip defeated the Athenians and their allies at the battle of Chaeronea.
    • The Athenians were allowed to keep their democratic institutions but they were no longer independent.
    • In 322 BCE, the Athenians revolted and the Macedonians destroyed the city.
    • Antipater, the son of Alexander the Great, appointed an oligarchy to rule Athens ending its democracy.

Constitutional History of Athens

  • Monarchy (1600-594 BCE):
    • The first form of government in Athens started in the 1600s BCE.
    • The power was exercised by a single king.
    • In 1100 BCE, the power was divided between 3 officials: the King, the Polemarch, and the Archon.
    • In 750 BCE, the power was divided between 9 officials: the three previous officials and 6 Thesmothetae.
  • The reforms of Solon (594 BCE):
    • In 594 BCE, Solon was appointed as the Archon.
    • He created the Council of 400 with 100 members from each of the 4 tribes.
    • The council of 400 acted against the power of the Areopagus (the council of former Archons).
    • Solon gave citizens the right to appeal, which means that the aristocratic magistrates could be held accountable by the people.
  • Tyranny of Peisistratus (546-527 BCE):
    • In 546 BCE, Peisistratus seized power and ruled as a tyrant.
    • Peisistratos did not disturb the operation of Solon’s institutions: the Areopagos, the Assembly, and the Council of 400.
  • The reforms of Cleisthenes (507 BCE):
    • He removed the power of the aristocracy and the tribes.
    • He created the Deme as the basic political unit based on geography.
    • There were 139 Demes.
    • He reallocated people into 10 tribes.
    • He created the Council of 500 with 50 members from each tribe.
  • The reforms of Ephialtes (462 BCE):
    • He removed the power of the Areopagus.
    • He transferred the power of the Areopagus to the Council of 500.
  • Oligarchy (411-404 BCE):
    • The oligarchs ruled Athens after the defeat in the Peloponnesian War.
  • The thirty tyrants (404-403 BCE):
    • The Spartans appointed a pro-Spartan council of 30 oligarchs to rule Athens.
    • Democratic exiles assembled an army and defeated the Thirty Tyrants in 403 BCE.
    • The Athenian democracy was restored.

Structure of the Athenian Democracy

  • Citizenship:
    • Only 10-20% of the population were citizens (adult free males).
    • Losing citizenship was a common punishment.
    • In 451 BCE, Pericles passed a law that required both parents to be Athenian citizens for the child to be a citizen.
  • The council of 500:
    • A member serves a one-year term.
    • A member can serve only twice in a lifetime.
    • The two terms can be served consecutively.
    • Thus, a large number of the citizens (around 30%) had served on the council.
    • Members were chosen by lot, were paid for their service, and went through an examination before taking office.
    • The year was divided into 10 prytanies, each lasting 35 or 36 days.
    • The Council served as the initial forum for discussion of proposed legislation.
    • Legislation was proposed by a member of the council, a citizen, or the Assembly.
    • The Council handled diplomatic relations between Athens and other states.
    • The Council was responsible for collecting the money extracted from the poleis.
  • The Assembly:
    • The Assembly was the ultimate repository of legislative authority.
    • The Assembly met on the Pnyx, a hill near the Acropolis, in the open air.
    • The attendance was around 6K citizens.
    • Every citizen is a member of the Assembly, and their membership cannot be taken away.
    • The Assembly met 40 times a year; 4 times in each prytany.
    • 10 officials managed the Assembly, these 10 changed every meeting and were chosen by lot.
    • The agenda for the Assembly is published in advance and set by the Council of 500.
    • The motions were read to the Assembly and then debated and voted on.
    • The Assembly discusses two enactments:
      • Laws (Nomoi): established general principles.
      • Decrees (Psephismata): for specific cases.
    • Nomothesia: the process of making laws, where laws are proposed to the Council, the Council discusses them, and then the Assembly votes on them.
  • The Jury Courts:
    • Before the reforms of Ephialtes, the court consisted of the entire Assembly and was called the Heliaea.
    • Later, the Heliaea was selected by a group of jury courts, and there can be 10 Heliaea at a time.
    • Selection of jurors:
      • At the beginning of each year, 6K citizens were enrolled in the jury courts (600 from each tribe).
      • Each day, jurors were selected from the enrolled citizens by lot.
      • The number of jurors at each case depends on the number of cases and the number of jurors attending.
      • Usually, every jury panel consists of 201-500 jurors.
      • Kleroterion: a randomization machine used to select jurors so that jurors are selected randomly and less likely to be bribed.
    • Jurors were paid 2-3 obols per day.
    • Jury decisions were final and could not be appealed.
    • Trials:
      • The hearing starts with the plaintiff and the defendant each making a speech.
      • Sometimes a representative (friend or relative) of the victim or the defendant would speak if the person was dead or young and inexperienced.
      • There were no official lawyers.
      • Adult citizens, resident aliens and freemen could be witnesses.
      • Women and children could not offer testimony.
      • Slaves could be tortured to extract information as it was thought that slaves would not testify against their masters out of fear.
      • Trials should be completed in one day.
  • The Aeropagos:
    • It consisted of all Archons who had served in the past.
    • The Aeropagos held at the Hill of Mars (hence, the name).
    • Members were appointed for life after their term as Archon had ended.
    • There were about 100 - 200 members.
    • Aeropagos, before the reforms of Ephialtes, had a broad range of powers.
    • After the reforms, the Aeropagos lost most of its powers and became a court for homicide cases.
  • Magistrates:
    • “Magistrate” is the usual translation of the term that is used to designate a range of public officials.
    • The nine Archons:
      • were the most important magistrates.
    • The Eleven.
    • The Astynomi.
    • The Agoranomi.
    • The Logistai and Euthynoi.
    • The ten Strategoi.

The Greek Poleis 4 5

Classical Greek Philosophy 6 7

  • Socrates:
    • Socrates was one of the most vocal critics of democracy.
    • Socrates was accused of “corrupting the youth of Athens” and practicing impiety, and they put him on trial at the People’s Court. In a narrow public vote, Athenians sentenced Socrates to death by poison.
    • Plato’s Apology documented Socrates’ defense during the trial.
    • Socrates was considered the wisest man alive because he recognized his own ignorance and knew the limits of his knowledge.
    • The trial of Socrates was made up form of a “mob rule” whereby a large audience of people served as “judges” lacking legal knowledge and time to prepare for the case.
    • Democracy cannot ensure that the educated and the trained govern society.
    • Socrates did not trust the capabilities of the common people and believed “voting in an election is a skill, not a random intuition.”
    • Socrates claimed that once people go into an extreme pursuit of freedom, any infringement on freedom will seem unfair.
  • Plato:
    • Plato also criticized democracy as it caused the death of Socrates (friend and mentor).
    • Democracy May Lead To Freedom, Which May Lead To Tyranny.
    • The reason is that in a democracy, people have more freedom over their lives, and they will keep demanding more of it. As they demand more freedom, the people will at some point protest any form of perceived infringement on freedom.
    • Plato wrote: “The excess of liberty, whether in States or individuals, seems only to pass into excess of slavery.”
  • Aristotle:
    • He was less critical of democracy than his teacher Plato.
    • In a democracy, we must balance freedom from being too modest and too excessive.
    • He thinks that democracy is constantly evolving, sometimes progressively, other times regressively.
    • Aristotle saw the struggle in governance as between oligarchy, which he defined as governance by the rich, and democracy, governance by the poor.
    • To avoid tyranny, “it is necessary for democratic citizens to receive a democratic education, an education relative to the regime”.

References

  1. Rothchild, J. A. (2007). Introduction to Athenian democracy of the fifth and fourth centuries BCE. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1020397 ↩↩

  2. Arzamas. (2017, May 30). Ancient Greece in 18 Minutes [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/gFRxmi4uCGo ↩↩

  3. UntoldEdu. (2021, October 21). The road to Athenian democracy [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/92Ig7aCh_KI ↩↩

  4. Brand, P. J. (2010). Athens & Sparta: Democracy vs. dictatorship. https://my.uopeople.edu/pluginfile.php/1849556/mod_book/chapter/501496/Athens%20%20Sparta%20dictatorship%20%20democracy.pdf ↩

  5. TED-Ed. (2018, March 15). A day in the life of an ancient Athenian – Robert Garland [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/ar8S6virCwM ↩

  6. Ivanovski, S. (2021, September 6). What did ancient Greek philosophers think about democracy? Lifestyle Democracy. https://www.lifestyledemocracy.com/what-did-ancient-greek-philosophers-and-scholars-think-about-democracy/ ↩

  7. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle – Philosophical thoughts of three great thinkers. (2018, November 2). Makeup & Breakup. https://my.uopeople.edu/pluginfile.php/1849556/mod_book/chapter/501497/Socrates%2C%20Plato%2C%20Aristotle.pdf ↩